Nuclear Energy Research Paper

Nuclear Energy Research Paper Nuclear energy is a comparatively new source of energy. The first nuclear power plant was commissioned in June 1954 in Obninsk, Russia. Fossil fuels offer a limited source of energy, as they are non-renewable. Eventually these supplies will cease, this is predicted to be in the next few decades. An estimate based on fuel consumption in America, predicts as early as 2020 there will be no fossil fuels left. The energy used by the whole world is approximated to be the coal equivalent to 2790 Gigatons per year. Fossil fuels reserves total for the world in 1980 had approximately 8685 Gigatons of coal and 91.2 Gigatons of oil. This is why extensive research has gone into looking for new sources of energy to keep things powered. Energy sources currently being used are hydroelectricity, wind turbines, solar power, fossil fuels and nuclear power, and now also hydrogen fuel cells. There is much controversy over the health and safety issues of using nuclear power, especially after Three Mile Island and the Chernobyl disasters. Where does the energy come from? Nuclear fission The nucleus is the centre of the atom which is normally made up of the same number of protons as it has neutrons. However, some very large nuclei in certain isotopes have an imbalance. They can often be found with too many neutrons, and this imbalance will result in the nucleus becoming unstable. Uranium-235 is a radioactive substance which due to its large size and unstable state can undergo induced fission. Its nucleus can be split into smaller atoms when induced by a neutron. This process will release two or three neutrons, depending on how the atom splits. These new neutrons can then initiate the decomposition of the nuclei of other atoms of Uranium. Propagation by the chain reaction releases more neutrons and causes further nuclear splits. Under controlled conditions, the rate of this chain reaction can be kept at a constant rate. This produces high temperatures but is not allowed to react out of control as in a nuclear bomb. The heat produced is used to turn water into steam, the steam then turns a turbine and generator, creating electricity. Nuclear Reactors In a reactor the uranium source required is 3-4% Uranium-235. Therefore it is necessary to enrich natural Uranium to use for nuclear power. This is done by converting uranium oxide extracted from ore into gaseous form, uranium hexafluoride. From this form it can be enriched from its natural proportion of 0.7% uranium-235 to 3-4%, this is done by separation of isotopes. A higher enrichment means better efficiency, and ordinary water can then be used as a moderator. The form of uranium usually used is pellet form, these are arranged into rods and then to bundles. These bundles are surrounded by a moderator such as water, graphite or heavy water. The moderator slows down the emitted neutrons by reducing their energy as they collide with the nuclei of the moderator. Control rods are placed in the bundles which control the rate of the nuclear reaction. These can also be used to shut down the reactor completely when something goes wrong. These control rods are materials which absorb neutrons, such as Cadmium and Boron. They work by reducing the number of neutrons in the reactor and therefore slowing down the reaction and consequently reducing the heat. To reduce heat, the rods are put further into the bundles where they absorb more neutrons. To raise the heat the opposite is done, and the heat level rises. As the atoms are split the energy is released as heat. This is used to heat water and turns it into steam. The steam drives a steam turbine, which spins a generator to produce electricity. This is what happens in a basic reactor, others include the use of intermediate heat exchangers or gaseous coolant fluid. The set up of a nuclear power plant is basically the same as that of a coal power plant. The main difference is how the water is heated to produce steam, from then on the turbines and generator work in the same way for both plants. Efficiency of Nuclear energy The majority, around 85%, of the energy gained from nuclear fission is the kinetic energy of the products. In solid fuel, particles can only move a very short distance. Therefore the kinetic energy is converted into heat as the particles are hitting against each other. The other 15% of the energy is gained from the Gamma rays emitted during the fission process, and from the kinetic energy of the neutrons released. The time taken to capture and split the neutron is minute, taking only 110-12 seconds. The energy gained by splitting an atom comes from the fact that the products formed from the fission, together with the neutrons weigh less than the original product. The change in mass appears in the form of energy, and follows Einstein’s equation E=mc2. The decay of a single Uranium-235 atom releases on average 200 million electron volts, the equivalent to 3.20410-11 joules of energy. In contrast, 4 electron volts are released per molecule of carbon dioxide in the combustion of fossil fuels. To compare obtainable energy content between fossil fuels and nuclear fuel, ‘a pound of highly enriched uranium †¦ is equal to something on the order of a million gallons of gasoline. So it can be seen that this is a very compact source of energy. The reason for the large amount of energy released is because the forces involved in nuclear reactions are much greater than those involved in chemical reactions. Uranium is a very dense metal at 18.95g/cm3 and the nucleus of a Uranium atom is very dense compared to the whole atom. The protons and neutrons are held very tightly together and the electrons orbiting the nucleus are comparatively far away, so this shows how the bonds involved are so much stronger. Nuclear fission is a very efficient source of energy because of the low amounts of waste products. Combustion of fossil fuels produces waste products such as ash and toxic fumes. This reduces the amount of usable energy produced by reaction, and therefore lowers its efficiency. Uranium is found in most rocks, at 0.000002% concentration. The Uranium found in the earths crust contains 99.3% Uranium-238 and 0.7% Uranium-235. Another possible source to extract Uranium from is seawater, the key is to find it in quantities that is economical for extraction. Is it safe? The reactor is contained within a concrete liner, which shields radiation. Since the Chernobyl incident, the reactor is now usually contained within a secondary containment structure made of steel. This prevents the leakage of radioactive steam in the event of an accident. The general view on nuclear power is that it is very bad for the environment. But in reality the radioactivity released into the atmosphere by a nuclear power plant is less than that released by a coal power plant. Additionally, coal power plants also pollute that environment with carbon and sulphur. Obviously the radiation produced by the nuclear power plant is greater in volume than that produced by the coal power plant, but the radiation is contained within the reactor. The environmental issues with this containment are what happens to the radioactive waste when a nuclear power plant is shut down. Half life and nuclear decay In the event of a nuclear leak, the effects of radiation on the environment can be huge. This can be seen from the after effects of the Chernobyl power plant when it exploded. In 1986, about 22% of the country was contaminated by the radiation of caesium-137. Ten to fifteen years later, 21% is still contaminated. This shows the large amount of time taken for radiation to be removed from the environment. The half-life of Uranium-235 is 700 million years, this is the time taken for half of the radioactive atoms in a sample to decay. So it can be seen that in the event of a nuclear leak, radioactive contamination causes very long term problems. The Chernobyl Accident The problems at the Chernobyl power plant were with reactor No. 4. Specific attributes of this reactor were that it was a light-water-cooled graphite-moderated reactor. This type of reactor has been criticised for its lack of containment structure, and large quantities of combustible graphite within its core. The accident actually occurred during a test run. The idea was to see if the turbines could produce the energy needed during a power cut, to keep coolant pumps working. Safety systems were turned off so as not to affect the test, and the reactor was reduced to 25% power capacity. Due to a fault the power level plummeted to below 1%, so technicians began to raise the power level slowly. But a power surge occurred and the emergency shutdown, which is designed to halt the chain reactions, failed. The rising power level and temperature got out of control, causing an explosion. This blew off a 1000 tonne sealing cap, causing the radioactive fission products to be thrown up into the atmosphere. The fuel rods melted and graphite moderator set fire. The mistake blamed for this disaster is that control rods were raised then immediately reinserted into the bundles. The inserting of control rods usually reduces the rate of the chain reaction. But in the case too many control rods were raised and replaced. This then had the reverse effect of raising power levels so fast that it caused the destruction of the reactor. Lessons learned from disasters In 2000, Germany decided to phase out nuclear power, and look into sources of power with less severe possible consequences on the environment. The disaster created international debate over the economics and controllability of nuclear power. In most European countries, no new research is being carried out on continuing to build nuclear power plants. Instead the research is aimed at improving safety features at existing nuclear power plants and disposal of nuclear waste. As of 1995, conversely, Asia and Eastern Europe have over 100 reactor units either planned or being constructed. The number of nuclear power plant inspectors rose vastly after this disaster, and general safety awareness has greatly improved. New regulations on emergency procedures where also put in place. The effects of the radiation are still affecting inhabitants of nearby countries, and are causing severe health problems amongst the young and old. At least now safety and disaster management are main issues within this industry, and hopefully this kind of event will not be allowed to happen in the future.

Pathology of the Heart Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Pathology of the Heart - Term Paper Example There are two main types of myocardial infarction and these are transmural while the other is subendocardial infarction. The transmural can be further classified as anterior or posterior and is a result of insufficient oxygen supply in the heart (Ruben and Reisner 23-232). This heart condition is basically due to deposits of fats along the blood arteries causing blockage in the tubing. As a result, more pressure is exerted to the heart during blood flow and this could lead to rapture of the blood vessels. It is also due to unbearable psychological stress or when one experiences physical exertion that exceeds the normal. Some research indicates that pneumonia and increased uses of antibiotics contribute to this heart condition. Some human activities contributing to this include excessive tobacco smoking as well as heavy alcohol drinking. Other factors contributing to heart failure are air pollution, diabetes, old age both in men and women, and proven genetic factors. Socioeconomic factors like lack of education or low income generation also pose high risks of heart attacks. Women using more than one type of contraceptive pills and still smoke are at higher risk of heart attacks. Symptoms associated to this heart condition include abrupt pains in the heart often felt in the form of tightness or pressure. The pain is due lack of enough blood supply in the organ. This is a condition which is also known as angina pectoris. Other symptoms are difficulty in breathing as a result of limitation of left ventricle output and abnormal anxiety. In addition, lack of concentration due to cerebral or brain shocks could be experienced (Bogaet and Dymarkowski 68-134). This heart condition could lead sudden death since the heart fails to supply the required amount of blood to various body parts. Women patients experience weakness as well as difficulty in

Personal Development Plan. Advancing Career Development Coursework

Personal Development Plan. Advancing Career Development - Coursework Example These include sparking the audience’s interest and presentation practices that respect the audience’s time. Use Toastmasters international articles, which offer information on oratory skills improvement, including how to deal with audiences that are distracted by capturing their imagination (Turner, 2013: p40). One excellent resource to improve networking skills is PLNs technologies that offer functionalities like communication and presentation with one’s peers that one can adapt and change to suit their needs (Turner, 2013: p46). It allows learners to structure complex environments of content and people according to their preference. Skill layer technology solutions, a social network management tool, will also be used to enhance communication with individuals within my network, as well as to remain in touch with them (Turner, 2013: p47). Ability in this skill will be measured at the end of the academic year. This is because it is only during this period that I will have met most of the important people to my academic and future professional career. It is also possible to assess one’s understanding about commercial realities and business benefits by participating in discussions about the related industries, as well as in the comment sections of most business-oriented websites like the WSJ. To improve on this skill, the mindTools.com website offers concentration strategies and tests that help to identify distracters in the environment and offers ways to adopt new strategies (Smale & Fowlie, 2012: p20). Ability in this skill will be evaluated towards the end of the school year in October and November. This is because this period is the most important for finding self-motivation by applying aspects of the skills as learnt over the semester. The Self-Regulated Strategy Development tool has persuasion maps. These are interactive online tools that enhance the student’s ability to map

Annotated Bibliography Essay Example for Free

Annotated Bibliography Essay Based upon the journalist research of web based learning environment and different learning styles; it seems that web based learning environment is an excellent medium for enhancing learning, due to its ability to adjust to individual student learning styles and preferences. The article investigates the impact of students learning style and their performance. Online degrees have increased since 2006. More learners are becoming more technologically savvy, and it is those learners that are technologically inept, who relies on instructional design from classroom settings and interaction with instructors and peers. The investigation leads to the assessment and learning style on student achievement in a Web based learning environment. If it was just a matter of instructional learning it would be a good fit for all, however, all does not possess technology abilities. If all learners had these abilities, web based learning styles would increase. Web based instructional design modules are not conclusive to certain learning styles. Consideration should be given to the learners characteristics whether the learner is able to grasp the material via the web based instruction. Learners should consider their learning style, motivational level, ability to interact with the instructor and their peers. However, without these abilities, students’ learning styles will be impacted because they lack the abilities to learn via web based instruction modules. Lai, I K. W. Lam, F.K.S. (2010). Perception of various performance criteria by stakeholders in the construction sector in Hong Kong. Research is conducted to examine different points of views of the importance of performance outcomes in a construction project in Hong Kong. ANOVA was used to analyse the data relative to how the performances were measured. Performances were measured using a performance criteria starting with the most important first, which is time. Timely completion of a project would prevent loss of revenue and penalities to the contractor. Lai and Lam noted that construction projects require concise planning, and are  divided between the consultant and the contractor. However, each par ty plays a significant part in the projects’ success. The difference between the client and the contractor; the client usually push for timely completion and would offer an incentive bonus for timely completion, however, the contractor would prefer a reasonable duration of time, therefore to avoid penalities to the contractor. The client, consultant, and the contractor, all parterner together to make the project a success by bringing job satisfaction, quality, safety, environment, generation of innovative ideas, performance criteria, and effectiveness to the project. Avoiding any mishaps that will delay or keep the project from running smoothly. Williams, A BTM7101-8 Activity 6, pg 2 The results of the research found that time was the most important factor of the project and should be taken into consideration early on in the planning process, and certain allowances should be factored into the budget, such as time constraints, delays, and mishaps that could happen during the construction of the project. References Wang, K.H., Wang, J.H., Wang, W.L. Huang, S.C. (2006) Learning styles and formative assessment strategy: enhancing student achievement in Web-based learning Wang T., Wang K., Wang W., Huang S. Chen S. (2004) Web-based Assessment and Test Analyses (WATA) system: development and evaluation. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 20, 59–71 Ford N. Chen S. (2000) Individual differences, hypermedia navigation and learning: an empirical study. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia 9, 281–312. Seckel, S. (2007 Characteristics and Responsibilities of Successful e-Learners LAI, I. K. W. (2010). Perception of Various performance criteria by stateholders in the construction sector in Hong kong. Assaf, S.A. and Al-Hejji, S. (2006) Causes of delay in large construction projects. International Journal of Project Management, 24(4), 349-57. Naoum, S. (2003) An overview into the concept of parternering . International Journal of Project Management 21(1), 71-6. PAH (2008) Project Administration Handbook for Civil Engineeering Works, 2008 Edition.

After Apple Picking :: After Apple Picking

After Apple Picking Throwing all sexual connotations aside, "After Apple Picking" is about a dying man who is pondering the accomplishments in his life, and contemplating on the opportunities that he has let pass by. As our narrator drowses off into his final sleep, he is tired of having had so many options, but still he knows that his mind will have time to think and wonder if he should regret. As the poem starts, he is standing on his long ladder pointed towards heaven, and looking down on the apples that he didn't pick. But, he shows no sign of regret, for he admits that he is "done with apple-picking now." Though he seems quite confident in this declaration, the reader questions his sincerity as he looks down at the barrel he didn't fill. For this is his last waking hour, and questions are sure to come while "the essence of winter sleep is on the night." Our narrator goes on to talk about his strange view of the "hoary grass" through a small sheet of ice. As he is looking through this piece of "glass", it begins to melt, thus symbolizing how his view of the world is about to end. Although completely aware of his waning time, he is comforted by knowing "What form [his] dreaming was about to take. With a somewhat optimistic outlook, he is confident of the positive nature of his thoughts in the afterlife. He supposes that his "dreams" shall be of his many accomplishments; a "stem" to "blossom" overview of his life's works. The narrator also figures that his dreams will show him how he was sturdy, swaying little, when boughs of the trees were bending in the wind. He will see himself as strong under the heat of a barrage of apples come rolling in. After admitting that he has had too much of apple-picking, he seems ready to watch the "Highlights" in his dreaming. While thinking of how successful he has been in his "apple-picking", he begins to wonder of the fruitful opportunities that he has let slip through his hands and fall through to the ground.

A Critique of the Structure Conduct Performance Paradigm (Scp) Essay

A Critique of the Structure Conduct Performance Paradigm (SCP) †¢The SCP approach draws on theories of market structure. These theories can be adapted to examine the behavior of firms and industries. However, these theories do not always give us exact relationships between structure, conduct and performance. †¢Structure can be measured by a multitude of indicators. Unfortunately, many economists tend to measure structure by concentration. This is primarily because data is easy to find in government statistics. As a consequence, there is a danger of overemphasizing the importance of concentration. †¢The SCP approach has been criticized for providing a ‘snapshot’ of competitive conditions. The approach does little to explain how the industry has evolved into its current state and what, if any, the future changes of industry structure and firm behavior are likely to be. †¢It is often difficult to decide which variables belong to structure, which to condu ct and which to performance. For example, the extent of advertising, vertical integration and diversification gives useful information as to the structure of an industry. However, these are also strategies which firms can choose to follow to gain a competitive advantage over rivals. †¢There are difficulties in measuring many of the variables. For example, how would one measure profitability? How does one measure entry barriers and the rate of entry? How do we measure the extent of vertical integration? †¢What exactly do we mean by performance? Performance is some measure of the degree of success in achieving desired goals. Is it possible to have a set of uniform performance indicators? Differences in firm objectives may make the links between firm behavior and performance difficult to assess. For example, if firms are sacrificing potential profits in order to reduce risk by investing in more certain activities, then researchers should be more interested in variability in profit rates and not profits levels per se. Alternatively, if managers are maximizing their own satisfaction through excess expenditures, then it is no longer clear that large firms will necessarily make abnormal returns. In other words, firms insulated from competitive pressure may choose a ‘quiet life’ and no longer strive for greater efficiency and higher profits. Despite its critics, the SCP approach is one of the most popular and enduring approaches to analyzing competitive markets. For example, European banking has experienced competitive change over the last decade. Government deregulation has increased competition and allowed banks to compete not only in domestic but also in other European markets. The extent of diversification has increased, which has caused the distinction between b anks, building societies and insurance companies to become blurred. There has been entry of foreign banks into many European countries, leading to intensified competition. The number of banks has declined in many European markets in recent years. The trend is apparent across different types of banks, including the mutual savings and co-operative banks as well as the domestic commercial banks. Reference: http://classof1.com/homework-help/macroeconomics-homework-help/

The Meaning of Friendship - 1710 Words

Student Name Instructor Name Course Name Date Meaning of Friendship The term friendship is perhaps the most common term in the conversation of every individual, but there would be hardly few individuals who have ever tried to think how and under what circumstances this term was originated. Similarly, people seldom think about the meaning of this commonly used term. It is really difficult to find somebody who can define what a real friend is. These facts make friendship an excessively vibrant relationship and perhaps it is its most valuable beauty. Sometimes it happens that even a small thing tends to destroy friendship and at times even a small thing can help friends get closer to each other. Ginigrey reports that many times it happens that friends, like angels, enter the lives of individuals at a time when they are needed the most. They come in at a time of great difficulty to help, provide moral support, but as soon as the difficult situation comes to an end they tend to fade leaving space for some new friend to come in (1). It doesnt matter for how long the friend stays in the lives of an individual, rather what matters the most is the coziness, pleasure, sustenance and camaraderie that friend has provided. Even though the term friend is spoken differently in many languages, every language connotes this priceless liaison in a similar manner and that also in a positive way. For instance, in French it is termed as amigo, in Danish it is called as ven. However,Show MoreRelatedThe True Meaning Of Friendship1691 Words   |  7 PagesMesnyankin Friendship, a term vaguely defined, however, the true meaning lies within each individual through experiences. Friendship seems to be sort of a necessity in our existence as Aristotle compels that â€Å"A human being is by nature a social being† (Nicomachean Ethics (1097b12-13)). 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